Fuusioreaktiossa kaksi kevyttä ydintä yhtyy yhdeksi raskaammaksi ytimeksi ja samalla vapautuu energiaa. Fuusioreaktio tarvitsee tapahtuakseen hyvin korkean lämpötilan, minkä seurauksena aine on olomuodoltaan plasmaa. Esimerkiksi fuusioreaktoreissa käytettäväksi suunniteltu vedyn isotooppien deuteriumin ja tritiumin välinen reaktio vaatii tapahtuakseen plasman kuumentamista yli 100 miljoonan kelvinin lämpötiloihin. Tutkituin fuusioreaktorimalli on tokamak, jossa kuumaa plasmaa hallitaan toruksen muotoisessa kammiossa voimakkaiden magneettikenttien avulla. Plasmaa koossapitävästä magneettikentästä huolimatta plasmasta karkaa hiukkasia, jotka lopulta osuvat kammion pinnoille. Yksi tapa kammion pintoihin kohdistuvan lämpö- ja hiukkasvuon pienentämiseksi on suihkuttaa kammioon epäpuhtausatomeja tai -molekyylejä jäähdyttämään reunaplasmaa. Typpi on osoittautunut kiinnostavaksi vaihtoehdoksi tähän tehtävään. Typen kulkeutuminen ja kertyminen reaktorikammion sisällä vaatii kuitenkin vielä lisätutkimuksia. Typen harvinainen isotooppi 15N tarjoaa mahdollisuuden tutkia näitä kysymyksiä. Tyypillisesti tämä tehdään merkkiainekokeiden avulla, jolloin reaktorikammioon suihkutetaan valittua merkkiainetta tunnetuissa olosuhteissa ja kokeen jälkeen selvitetään merkkiaineen jakauma reaktorikammion pinnoilla. Tässä työssä keskityttiin seinätiiliin, jotka on irrotettu ASDEX Upgrade -fuusioreaktorista (AUG) vuosien 2010-2011 koekampanjan jälkeen. Kyseisen koekampanjan lopussa suoritettiin 15N-merkkiainekoe. Työssä tutkittiin tiilistä porattujen näytteiden 15N-pitoisuuksia lentoaika-rekyylianalyysilla (Time Of Flight Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis, TOF-ERDA), ydinreaktioanalyysilla (Nuclear Reaction Analysis, NRA) ja sekundääri-ionimassaspektrometrialla (Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, SIMS). Vertailun vuoksi tutkittiin myös 15N:llä implantoituja testinäytteitä. Tutkielman alkuosassa esitellään lyhyesti tokamak-fuusioreaktorin toimintaa, plasman vuorovaikutusta reaktorin seinämän kanssa, typen käyttöä fuusioreaktoreissa, merkkiainekokeita sekä käytetyt mittausmenetelmät. Tutkielma loppuosa keskittyy suoritettuihin mittauksiin, niiden analyysiin ja tuloksiin sekä johtopäätöksiin. Tulosten perusteella mittausmenetelmien välillä on merkittäviä eroja AUG-näytteiden kohdalla, kun taas implantoiduille näytteille erot menetelmien välillä ovat pienet. Erot johtuvat todennäköisesti AUG-näytteiden epätasaisesta pintarakenteesta, minkä seurauksena typen jakauma näytteiden pintakerroksissa vaihtelee. TOF-ERDA:lla tutkittiin näytteistä mahdollisimman sileää pintaa luotettavan analyysin onnistumiseksi. NRA-mittauksissa protonisuihku kohdistui näytteen keskelle suuremmalle pinta-alalle. Suureen alueeseen sisältyy myös karkeampia kohtia, joihin merkkiaineen kertyminen on sileää pintaa suurempaa. Tämän seurauksena NRA:lla saadaan selvästi suurempia tuloksia 15N:n pintatiheydelle kuin TOF-ERDA:lla. Kvadrupolimassaspektrometrissa ilmenneiden ongelmien vuoksi SIMS-mittauksia suoritettiin vain yksi, minkä vuoksi optimaalisten asetusten löytäminen 15N:n mittaamiseen SIMS:llä vaatii vielä lisätutkimuksia.

The study of air ions by applying air balance concept based on the Hyytiälä SMEAR II station measurement was performed in this work. Diurnal and seasonal variations in ion concentration and environmental ionizing radiation were studied by analysing data collected from long-term measurements. Total gamma radiation was the main source for ion production in the atmosphere, which can be attenuated by snow cover during winter periods. α and β emissions from radon decay process showed a share of about 20% in the production of total ion pairs, which were sensitive to variations in soil conditions. In general, more positive ions than the negative ones exist at ground level due to the earth electrode effect. Similar patterns were found in cluster ion concentration and the ion source rate derived from the total gamma radiation. On days with new particle formation (NPF), a relation was observed between cluster ion concentration, wind speed, temperature (T) as well as relative humidity (RH). A similar connection was also identified in ion source rate and ion production rate to T and RH. A high ion source rate derived from gamma dose rate was observed on non-event days and low on NPF days. The reversed case was found in the source rate derived from radon decay emissions. The ion production rate was typically higher on NPF event days than on non-event days. Two approaches were carried out in the determination of the ion production rate in the cluster size range by using an improved balance equation of air ions. The similar values obtained using these two approaches imply a balanced condition between ionizing source and the observed ion concentration. This suggests that measurement of air ions by the Balanced Scanning Mobility Analyser (BSMA) is likely to be reliable, though accurate parameterization for sub-0.8 nm ions is not available to the present knowledge. Moreover, the ion production rate and formation rate were found incomparable.

Annoksen ja pinta-alan tuloa (DAP, dose-area product) mittaavaa DAP-mittaria käytetään röntgendiagnostiikassa potilaan säteilyaltistuksen määritykseen. DAP-mittari on läpäisytyyppinen, tasomainen ionisaatiokammio, jolla voidaan mitata samanaikaisesti potilastutkimuksen kanssa. Röntgenlaitteessa oleva DAP-mittari tulisi kalibroida siten, että mittaustuloksena saadaan annoksen ja pinta-alan tulo potilaaseen kohdistuvassa säteilykeilassa. Mittareita voidaan kalibroida erilaisilla menetelmillä, mutta usein on tyydytty käyttämään mittarin valmistuksen yhteydessä tehtyä kalibrointia. Tässä työssä oli tarkoitus kehittää DAP-mittareille yhtenäinen ja toimiva kalibrointimenettely, jonka avulla mittaukset ovat jäljitettävissä kansainväliseen mittausjärjestelmään. Uudessa kalibrointimenettelyssä käyttöpaikalla suoritettava kalibrointi tehdään kalibroidulla DAP-mittarilla (vertailumittarilla), joka on säteilykeilassa samanaikaisesti kalibroitavan mittarin kanssa. Säteilyn käyttöpaikalla kalibroinnissa tarvittavat vertailumittarit kalibroidaan Säteilyturvakeskuksen (STUK) mittanormaalilaboratoriossa. Menetelmän kehittelyä varten DAP-mittareita tutkittiin laboratorioon rakennetulla mittausjärjestelyllä, jossa selvitettiin niiden toimintaa ja kalibrointiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä. Vertailumittarin kalibrointia varten tutkittiin kahta menetelmää, joissa todellinen annoksen ja pinta-alan tulo määritetään joko mittaamalla kalibroidulla DAP-mittarilla tai laskemalla ilmaan absorboituneen annoksen ja säteilykeilan poikkileikkauksen pinta-alan mitattujen arvojen tulo. Kahdella eri menetelmällä mitatut DAP-arvot poikkeavat useita prosentteja toisistaan. Aikaisempien tutkimuksien ja omien mittausten perusteella päätettiin, että vertailumittareiden kalibroinnissa käytetään mittanormaalina laboratorion kalibroitua DAP-mittaria. Kehitetyn menetelmän avulla mittanormaalilaboratoriossa kalibroitiin viisi vertailumittaria. Yhden vertailumittarin avulla kalibroitiin diagnostisten röntgenlaitteiden DAP-mittareita niiden omilla käyttöpaikoilla sairaalassa. Mittauksissa huomattiin, että tavanomainen paine- ja lämpötilakorjaus korjaa mittareiden näyttämää hieman liikaa. Siksi olosuhteiden vaihtelut vaikuttavat korjattuihin mittaustuloksiin ja kalibroinnin epävarmuuteen enemmän kuin aikaisemmin on arvioitu.

Graphene is the ultimately thin membrane composed of carbon atoms, for which future possibilities vary from desalinating sea water to fast electronics. When studying the properties of this material, molecular dynamics has proven to be a reliable way to simulate the effects of ion irradiation of graphene. As ion beam irradiation can be used to introduce defects into a membrane, it can also be used to add substitutional impurities and adatoms into the structure. In the first study introduced in this thesis, I presented results of doping graphene with boron and nitrogen. The most important message of this study was that doping of graphene with ion beam is possible and can be applied not only to bulk targets but also to a only one atomic layer thick sheet of carbon atoms. Another important result was that different defect types have characteristic energy ranges that differ from each other. Because of this, it is possible to control the defect types created during the irradiation by varying the ion energy. The optimum energy for creating a substitution for N ion is at about 50 eV (55%) and for B ion it is ca. 40% at about the same energy. Single vacancies are most probably created at an energy of about 125 eV for N (55%) and for B at ca. 180 eV (35%). For double vacancies, the maximum probabilities are roughly at 110 eV for N (16%) and at 70 eV for B (6%). The probabilities for adatoms are the highest at very small energies. A one atom thick graphene membrane is reportedly impermeable to standard gases. Hence, graphene's selectivity for gas molecules trying to pass through the membrane is determined only by the size of the defects and vacancies in the membrane. Gas separation using graphene membranes requires knowledge of the properties of defected graphene structures. In this thesis, I presented results of the accumulation of damage on graphene by ion irradiation using MD simulations. According to our results, graphene can withstand up to 35% vacancy concentrations without breakage of the material. Also, a simple model was introduced to predict the influence of the irradiation during the experiments. In addition to the specific results regarding ion irradiation manipulation of graphene, this work shows that MD is a valuable tool for material research, providing information on atomic scale rarely accessible for experimental research, e.g., during irradiation. Using realistic interatomic potentials MD provides a computational microscope helping to understand how materials behave at the atomic level.

The most important parameters describing the aerosol particle population are the size, concentration and composition of the aerosol particles. The size and water content of the aerosol particles are dependent of the relative humidity of the ambient air. Hygroscopicity is a measure to describe the water absorption ability of an aerosol particle. Volatility of an aerosol defines how the aerosol particles behave as a function of temperature. A Volatility-Hygroscopicity Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer (VH-TDMA) is an instrument for size-selected investigation of particle number concentration, volatility, hygroscopicity and the hygroscopicity of the particle core, i.e. what is left of the particle after the volatilization. While knowing these qualities of aerosol particles, one can predict their behavior in different atmospheric conditions. Volatility and hygroscopicity can also be used for indirect analysis of chemical composition. The aim of this study was to build and characterize a VH-TDMA, and report the results of its field deployment at the California Nexus (CalNex) 2010 measurement campaign. The calibration measurements validated that with the VH-TDMA one can obtain accurate volatility and hygroscopicity measurements for particles between 20 nm and 145 nm. The CalNex 2010 results showed that the instrument is capable in field measurements at varying measurement conditions; and valuable data about hygroscopicty, volatility and the mixing state of several types of aerosols were measured. The data obtained was in line with the observations based on the data measured with other instruments.

In the upgraded CMS pixel detector (phase II upgrade), the pixel size will become smaller due to the higher occupancy caused by higher luminosity of the LHC. This means that also the bump bonds between the sensor and the read-out circuit will become smaller, which results in smaller gap between the sensor and the ROC. This will increase the probability for electrical sparking that might destroy the ROC, the sensor or both. Jaakko Härkönen has suggested using alumina passivation on the modules for sparking prevention. In this thesis it was studied whether bonding is applicable on a surface having an alumina passivation. It was also of interest, which parameters of the bonder make stronger bonds. Bonding was tested on metal pads with different layer thicknesses of alumina: 0 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, 20 nm and 25 nm. The strengths of the bonds were tested using the bond pull test. The results indicate that wire-bonding on alumina does well in pull-strength tests, though the bonds are slightly weaker than on surfaces with no alumina. Increasing bonding force seems to weaken the bonds, increasing bonding power, on the other hand seems to make stronger bonds. The conclusion of this thesis is that alumina is a viable choice for passivation, since it does not seem to have a negative effect on the module wire bonding.

Ioninesteet ovat suoloja, joilla on matala sulamislämpötila (alle noin 100 °C). Niillä on useita hyödyllisiä ominaisuuksia ja lukuisia mahdollisia sovelluksia. Tarkempi tieto ioninesteiden atomitason rakenteesta on kuitenkin tärkeää niiden ominaisuuksien ja mahdollisuuksien ymmärtämiseksi sekä sovellusten kehittämiseksi. Tässä työssä tutkittiin 1-3-dimetyyli-imidazoliumkloridia ([mmim]Cl), joka on molekyylimassaltaan kevyt prototyyppinen ionineste. Tässä tutkielmassa hyödynnettiin epäelastista röntgensirontaa uuden informaation saamiseksi. Epäelastisessa röntgensironnassa fotoni siroaa elektronisysteemistä luovuttaen sekä energiaa että liikemäärää. Fotonin epäelastista sirontaa kutsutaan Compton-sironnaksi, kun energian- ja liikemääränsiirto on suuri. Compton-sirontaa voidaan käyttää aineen atomi- ja molekyylitason rakenteen tutkimisessa, sillä Compton-sirontakokeissa määritettävä suure, Compton-profiili, on herkkä atomien välisen geometrian muutoksille. Mittaustulosten tulkinta on kuitenkin haastavaa ja laskennallisella mallintamisella on siinä suuri rooli. Tässä tutkielmassa laskettiin [mmim]Cl:n neste- ja kidefaasien isotrooppisten Compton-profiilien erotus (erotusprofiili). Tiettyjen oletusten ollessa voimassa Compton-profiili riippuu elektronien liikemäärätiheydestä, joten profiilit voidaan määrittää aineen perustilaa kuvaavien elektronirakennelaskujen avulla. Tässä tutkielmassa elektronirakennelaskuissa käytettiin Kohn-Sham-tiheysfunktionaaliteoriaa, periodisia reunaehtoja ja Gaussisia kantajoukkoja elektronitiloille. Lisäksi laskennan tarkkuuteen vaikuttavia tekijöitä arvioitiin. Liikemäärähilan tiheydellä sekä vaihto-korrelaatiofunktionaalin ja kantajoukon valinnalla havaittiin olevan suuri vaikutus laskettuun erotusprofiiliin. Nämä tekijät olivat selkeästi merkittävämpiä kuin nesterakenteiden äärellisestä määrästä johtuva tilastollinen epätarkkuus. Erotusprofiilin tulkitsemiseksi kiderakenteesta otettuun yhteen [mmim]Cl-ionipariin tehtiin muutoksia käytetyn nesterakenteen perusteella ja tarkasteltiin näiden muutosten vaikutusta Compton-profiiliin. Sekä molekylääristen ionien sisäisen rakenteen että ionien välisen geometrian muutosten havaittiin vaikuttavan merkittävästi laskettuun erotusprofiiliin. Tässä työssä esitetyt tulokset auttavat kokeellisen erotusprofiiliin tulkinnassa ja selittämisessä.

Ion interaction with matter plays an important role in the modern silicon based micro- and nanoindustry. Ions accelerated to significant energies are able to penetrate into materials allowing for controlled tailoring of the materials' properties. However, it is extremely important to understand the nature of these interactions, and computer modelling is by far the most suitable technique for this purpose. The models used in ion irradiation software are either based on the binary collision approximation (BCA) or molecular dynamics (MD). The first mentioned is both the oldest and the most widely used one. There are three reasons for this: the simple idea, the fast calculation speeds, and the user-friendly graphical user interfaces distributed with the codes. However, there are still some pitfalls in accuracy compared to MD. MDRANGE, an ion range MD code, developed at the Accelerator Laboratory of the University of Helsinki, combines the accuracy of MD with the speed of the BCA. If the tool is given a graphical user interface, it would become more appealing to scientists not familiar with programming. Different methods and techniques for calculating the penetration depths and ranges of kinetic ions in solids are presented in this work. They are accompanied by an overview of the mathematics allowing them to be as physically accurate as possible, over reasonable computation times. For both BCA and MD, generally, the computationally most demanding part is the calculation of the interactions between two or more particles. These interactions are handled through evaluation of potential functions developed especially for different combinations of atoms. The graphical user interface developed in this work is meant as a robust setup tool for use with MDRANGE. The separation of parameters into different panels and the main functionality of the different parts are presented in detail. It is possible to generate the three mandatory input files (coords.in, elstop.in, and param.in) with the tool. Out of these three files, param.in is the file in main focus when the application is used. In addition to the generation of the three files, there are also functions included for investigating range calculation results in real time during simulations. During the last five decades, there has been a huge development of the simulation models intended for ion irradiation processes. Even though BCA models excel in speed, they are not able to compete with MD in simulating many-body interactions for atoms with kinetic energies lower than 1 keV. MDRANGE was developed as a bridge between the two models to allow for faster MD calculations, comparable to BCA calculations, while still taking into account the many-body interactions for ions with lower speeds. With the graphical user interface, developed in this work, it will become even more appealing to scientists not familiar with programming, but still in need of an ion range calculation software.

Helium has two stable isotopes: more common 4He with four nucleons, and the very rare 3He with three nucleons. At sufficiently low temperature, helium can become superfluid that has no viscosity. This transition is quantum mechanical in nature, and since bosonic 4He and fermionic 3He follow different quantum statistics, there is a significant difference in the transition temperature between them. It is about 2 K for pure 4He, but for pure 3He it is three orders of magnitude lower, around 1 mK. 3He – 4He mixtures also have several interesting properties at very low temperatures, such as the finite solubility of 3He in 4He even at absolute zero limit. However, at kelvin range, where our experiment took place, the notable feature is the shifting of the supefluid transition temperature of 4He to a lower temperature due to addition of 3He. Bulk superfluid helium can support two different sound modes: first sound is ordinary pressure (or density) wave, whereas second sound is a temperature (or entropy) wave, unique to superfluid systems. In inviscid superfluid systems, temperature fluctuations can propagate as second sound wave, but in normal systems, on the other hand, this is not possible, as all temperature fluctuations are strongly damped. First sound and second sound do not usually exist independent of each other, rather pressure variations are accompanied by variations in temperature, and vice versa. In this thesis, we studied experimentally the coupling between first and second sound in dilute 3He - superfluid 4He mixtures, at saturated vapor pressure, at temperatures between 2.2 K and 1.7 K, and at 3He concentrations ranging from 0 % to 11%, using a quartz tuning fork mechanical oscillator. Second sound that is coupled to first sound can create anomalies in the resonance response of the quartz tuning fork, so-called second sound resonances. We learned that there exists a temperature and concentration region, where these anomalies disappear, which would indicate two sound modes decoupling from each other. We also present a hydrodynamical model that correctly predicts the decoupling behavior.

Creep is time dependent plastic malformation of solids, that happen in static stress and temperature when threshold values are met. Creep occurs at high temperature, meaning temperature more than 30% of material's absolute melting temperature (this limit is a little lower with plastics, and higher in ceramics). The malformations it causes can lead to rupture, which usually happen in a short time compared to the duration of the whole process. The creep effect itself is known from already the 19th century, and for metals it's quite clear that diffusion is always present in creep (Coble and Nabarro-Herring creep), and that dislocations can increase the rate of creep strain. Effects of creep can be seen e.g. in power plants and engines, where turbine blades, turbines, pipes and vessels are all the time at high temperature and stress. Also creep relaxation is often 'loosening' bolts which needs to be retightened. In regular office creep can be seen in paper clips, especially in plastic ones, which relax and lose grip fast because of the low melting point of plastics. Creep, because it usually needs long time to be visible, has been part of accidents, too, e.g. in '9/11'. Creep appears in 3 stages (primary (transient), secondary (steady-state), tertiary), and depending on the application, either secondary or tertiary is the most important one. The secondary creep is important for displacement-, buckling- and relaxation-limited situations, and tertiary for the rupture-limited ones.