Episyenites are sub-solidus, quartz-depleted alkali-feldspar-rich rocks. They form veins and lenticular bodies in granitoid rocks and migmatites in a late- to post-orogenic or anorogenic setting. Leaching of quartz is usually a response to a flux of weakly saline hydrothermal solution in circulation cells above cooling intrusions, where sufficient fluid-rock ratios and thermal gradients are achieved. Fluid Si-undersaturation is achieved by rapid cooling within the field of retrograde Si solubility or by temperature and pressure increase outside retrograde conditions. Some quartz may also be consumed in metasomatic reactions and in response to pressure fluctuation in sealed episyenite bodies. The small size and overall rarity of episyenites imply that conditions for episyenite formation are not commonly encountered in the crust. In addition to quartz depletion, episyenites record complex histories of metasomatic alteration and hydrothermal mineral growth. Nearly all episyenites have undergone Na-metasomatism, which may have led to the formation of nearly monomineralic albitite, and which is occasionally followed by late K-metasomatism, phyllic alteration, and argillization. Depending on the effectiveness of later compaction, recrystallization and vug-filling episyenites may preserve the macroscopic porosity formed by quartz dissolution and brittle deformation. Vuggy episyenites can act as significant sinks for metals carried by crustal fluids and host many significant U, Sn, and Au deposits worldwide. Rare earth-critical syenitic fenites around alkaline intrusions share mineralogical and genetic traits with episyenites.

Anthropogenic nutrient input has caused a rapid expansion of bottom water hypoxia in the Baltic Sea over the past century. Two earlier intervals of widespread hypoxia, coinciding with the Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTMHI; 8-4 ka before present; BP) and the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA(HI); similar to 1200-750 years BP), have been identified from Baltic Sea sediments. Here we present sediment records from two sites in the Baltic Sea, and compare the trace metal (As, Ba, Cd, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Re, Sb, Tl, U, V, Zn) enrichments during all three hypoxic intervals. Distinct differences are observed between the intervals and the various elements, highlighting the much stronger perturbation of trace metal cycles during the modern hypoxic interval. Both Mo and U show a strong correlation with C-org and very high absolute concentrations, indicative of frequently euxinic bottom waters during hypoxic intervals. During the modern hypoxic interval (Modern(HI)) comparatively less Mo is sequestered relative to C-org than in earlier intervals. This suggests partial drawdown of the water column Mo inventory in the modern water column due to persistent euxinia and only partial replenishment of Mo through North Sea inflows. Molybdenum contents in modern sediments are likely also affected by the recent slowdown in input of Mo in association with deposition of Fe and Mn oxides. Strong enrichments of U in recent sediments confirm that the Modern(HI) is more intense than past intervals. These results suggest that U is a more reliable indicator for the intensity of bottom water deoxygenation in the Baltic Sea than Mo. Sedimentary Re enrichment commences under mildly reducing conditions, but this element is not further enriched under more reducing conditions. Enrichments of V are relatively minor for the MCA(HI) and Modern(HI), possibly due to strong reservoir effects on V in the water column, indicating that V is unreliable as an indicator for the intensity of bottom water hypoxia in this setting. Furthermore, Ba profiles are strongly influenced by post-depositional remobilization throughout the Holocene. The strong relationship between C-org and Ni, Tl and particularly Cu suggests that these trace metals can be used to reconstruct the C-org flux into the sediments. Profiles of As, Sb and Cd and especially Pb and Zn are strongly influenced by anthropogenic pollution.

Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) is defined by the IAEA as “Radioactive material containing no significant amounts of radionuclides other than naturally occurring radionuclides”. In the EC directive 2013/58/Euratom several industry sectors are listed that are known to often deal with NORM, either in residues, wastes, by-products, or products, the mining industry is one of these. The risk posed by NORM is defined by exposure potential and concentration. In the wastes created by the mining industry these are tied to the management of wastes and concentration of radionuclides in the exploited mineral resource. Wastes created by the mining industry are often of environmental concern as they are in many cases piled on the mining site after closure. The tailings of a mine may contain pyrite, which when oxidized creates acid mine drainage. The acidic waters in such sites can enhance the mobility of radionuclides and other harmful elements. In this thesis two mine waste sites were selected for study, which were known to have had issues with natural radioactivity. These two sites were the old Zn, Pb, Cu mine of Vihanti and the Pb, REE mine of Korsnäs. The current state of these two sites was studied. Possible transport of radionuclides or other harmful elements and the dose to a member of the public on the sites was also studied. Soil, waste, sediment, and water samples were collected from both sites and analyzed. Solid samples were analyzed using gamma spectrometry and the radionuclides of interest were: 238U, 226Ra, 210Pb, 232Th, 228Th, 228Ra. Water samples were analyzed with ICP-MS and the elements measured with this method were: Al, Si, P, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Mo, Cd, Pb and U. In addition, some mine waste samples were studied further using XRF and SR-XRPD methods. The results of this thesis indicate that in Vihanti, the wastes have been adequately covered, reducing the external radiation dose to near background levels. The gamma spectrometry results showed no concerning activity concentrations in soil, sediment or waste samples. Two locations were found where the ICP-MS analyses yielded high concentrations of nearly all measured elements, the pH of these sites was low as well. Signs of acid mine drainage were found in these locations, but the effects seem to be localized and no evidence of large-scale transport of contaminants through waterways was found. In Korsnäs the wastes are split into two piles, one containing tailings, and the other enriched lanthanide that was never sold. The results indicate that the lanthanide pile has been adequately covered and the external radiation dose around the pile is near background levels. While the tailings have not been covered like the lanthanide pile has, the results showed that a member of the public is unlikely to receive a dose exceeding 0.1 mSv/a from spending time on the site. Activity concentrations exceeding 1 Bq/g were detected in samples collected from the lanthanide pile, with some evidence of uranium mobilization also seen. In addition, uranium concentrations in the waters of the old open pit mine were relatively high.

Traces of Pu have been detected in material released from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) in March of 2011; however, to date the physical and chemical form of the Pu have remained unknown. Here we report the discovery of particulate Pu associated with cesium-rich microparticles (CsMPs) that formed in and were released from the reactors during the FDNPP meltdowns. The Cs-pollucite-based CsMP contained discrete U(IV)O2 nanoparticles,