Gene delivery using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors is a widely used method to transduce neurons in the brain, especially due to its safety, efficacy, and long-lasting expression. In addition, by varying AAV serotype, promotor, and titer, it is possible to affect the cell specificity of expression or the expression levels of the protein of interest. Dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra projecting to the striatum, comprising the nigrostriatal pathway, are involved in movement control and degenerate in Parkinson's disease. AAV-based gene targeting to the projection area of these neurons in the striatum has been studied extensively to induce the production of neurotrophic factors for disease-modifying therapies for Parkinson's disease. Much less emphasis has been put on AAV-based gene therapy targeting dopamine neurons in substantia nigra. We will review the literature related to targeting striatum and/or substantia nigra dopamine neurons using AAVs in order to express neuroprotective and neurorestorative molecules, as well as produce animal disease models of Parkinson's disease. We discuss difficulties in targeting substantia nigra dopamine neurons and their vulnerability to stress in general. Therefore, choosing a proper control for experimental work is not trivial. Since the axons along the nigrostriatal tract are the first to degenerate in Parkinson's disease, the location to deliver the therapy must be carefully considered. We also review studies using AAV--synuclein (-syn) to target substantia nigra dopamine neurons to produce an -syn overexpression disease model in rats. Though these studies are able to produce mild dopamine system degeneration in the striatum and substantia nigra and some behavioural effects, there are studies pointing to the toxicity of AAV-carrying green fluorescent protein (GFP), which is often used as a control. Therefore, we discuss the potential difficulties in overexpressing proteins in general in the substantia nigra.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing movement disabilities and several non-motor symptoms in afflicted patients. Recent studies in animal models of PD and analyses of brain specimen from PD patients revealed an increase in the level and activity of the non-receptor tyrosine kinase Abelson (c-Abl) in dopaminergic neurons with phosphorylation of protein substrates, such as alpha-synuclein and the E3 ubiquitin ligase, Parkin. Most significantly inhibition of c-Abl kinase activity by small molecular compounds used in the clinic to treat human leukemia have shown promising neuroprotective effects in cell and animal models of PD. This has raised hope that similar beneficial outcome may also be observed in the treatment of PD patients by using c-Abl inhibitors. Here we highlight the background for the current optimism, reviewing c-Abl and its relationship to pathophysiological pathways prevailing in PD, as well as discussing issues related to the pharmacology and safety of current c-Abl inhibitors. Clearly more rigorously controlled and well-designed trials are needed before the c-Abl inhibitors can be used in the neuroclinic to possibly benefit an increasing number of PD patients.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease in which dopaminergic neurons that form the nigrostriatal pathway gradually die. This causes the main motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: tremor, rigidity and bradykinesia. While PD affects 1-2% of total population, all currently used medicines are symptomatic, and there is no disease modifying therapy available at present. Although several different animal models for Parkinson’s disease exist, the lack of adequate animal models is often cited as a major obstacle for predicting the clinical success of potential drug candidates. Lewy bodies (LBs) are abnormal aggregates that develop and spread inside nerve cells of human PD patients, their main structural component being α-synuclein. Because α-synuclein is thought to play a major role in the pathology of PD, much research has been focused on it. Different α-synuclein-based animal models of PD exist today, of which the most recent are based on using direct injections of preformed α-synuclein fibrils (PFFs). These new α-synuclein based disease models have helped to understand the disease process in PD better, but cell death in these models takes longer to achieve and is often less pronounced compared to traditional neurotoxin based animal models of PD. The aim of this study was to participate in the development and characterization of a novel mouse model of PD. This new model combines PFF-injections with the commonly used neurotoxin 6-OHDA, which should result in more robust dopamine pathway degeneration than what is seen with the current PFF-based models. The main hypothesis of this study was that the combination of intrastriatal injections of PFFs and a low dose of 6-OHDA would cause gradual spreading of the α-synuclein aggregation pathology in the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway and progressive dopamine neuron loss leading to motor deficits. C57BL/6 mice were stereotactically injected unilaterally with both PFF and 6-OHDA, and their performance was assessed every other week with different behavioral tests until week 12. At the end, brains were collected and optical density of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine transporter (DAT) was measured from striatal sections, and TH and DAT positive cells in the substantia nigra were counted. The amount of Lewy bodies present in the brain slices was also counted from the cortex and substantia nigra areas of the brain. In the histological assays, statistically significant reductions of both TH and DAT were found in the brain sections of the PFF + 6-OHDA combination group and the amount of TH and DAT positive cells were lower in this group compared to the group receiving vehicle treatment only. However, the results of behavioral tests were non-significant, although a non-statistical positive trend in the amphethamine-induced rotations test was observed where mice receiving PFF + 6-OHDA rotated the most. Taken together, combination model that utilizes both PFF and 6-OHDA injections seems like a promising candidate in modelling PD in mice, but much more research and further development of the model is required before this combination model is ready and robust for use in drug development.

Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) play an important role in regulating the survival, differentiation and maturation of developing neurons. Based on strong pre-clinical evidences, some of NTFs have been suggested to be efficient therapeutic agents for treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD). PD is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of dopamine (DA) neurons from nigrostriatal pathway resulting in motor symptoms of the disease. A hallmark of the disease is the presence of Lewy bodies in the brain and they comprise majorly of aggregated alpha-synuclein (aSyn) protein. MANF, an unconventional NTF, was discovered over a decade ago and differs from traditional NTFs. Removal of MANF has been shown to trigger unfolded protein response in cells. Evidences indicate that increased endogenous level of aSyn may have a role in enhancing the process of aggregation of aSyn into Lewy body. Determining the initiation event of aSyn aggregation is an important step in Lewy body pathology and it is still under investigation. In the first part of this study, I aimed to elucidate if MANF knockout can trigger any change in endogenous level of aSyn. Transmission of Lewy bodies from cell to cell has been well studied by researchers and is suggested to spread across brain in a prion like fashion. CDNF has been neuroprotective and restorative for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons in a toxin-based models of PD. However, presently exists no study which has evaluated the effects of CDNF on propagation of aSyn aggregates in vivo. In the second part of this study, I aimed at evaluating effects of long-term intrastriatal infusion of CDNF at two concentrations (1.5 μg/24h or 3 μg/24h) on propagation of endogenous phosphorylated aSyn inclusions in vivo. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated MANF knockout in SH-SY5Y cells did not yield any significant changes in the endogenous level of aSyn. Additionally, brain samples derived from MANF knockout mice yielded similar non-significant difference in level of aSyn compared to wild-type mice. MANF knockout primary DA neurons when inoculated either with only pre-formed fibrils (PFFs) or with a combination of PFFs and aSyn overexpression, showed no significant difference in the number of Lewy body like aggregates, suggesting no change in endogenous aSyn levels. Rats were injected with PFFs and then chronically infused with CDNF, 1 month and 2 months after PFFs at 2 different concentrations (1.5 μg/24h or 3 μg/24h). Immunohistochemical analysis of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) derived from rats showed similar numbers of endogenous phosphorylated aSyn inclusions in animals treated chronically with either CDNF or PBS. In summary, only MANF knockout from cells or animals has no direct effect on endogenous level of aSyn. But external stressors may perhaps trigger upregulation of aSyn in MANF knockout cells. Furthermore, chronic infusion of CDNF either 1 month or 2 months after PFF injection doesn’t reduce the total number of phosphorylated aSyn inclusions in SNpc compared to control. Nevertheless, we need more data to corroborate this evidence.

Prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP) is a serine protease that binds to alpha-synuclein (aSyn) and induces its aggregation. PREP inhibitors have been shown to have beneficial effects in Parkinson's disease models by enhancing the clearance of aSyn aggregates and modulating striatal dopamine. Additionally, we have shown that PREP regulates phosphorylation and internalization of dopamine transporter (DAT) in mice. In this study, we clarified the mechanism behind this by using HEK-293 and PREP knock-out HEK-293 cells with DAT transfection. We tested the effects of PREP, PREP inhibition, and alpha-synuclein on PREP-related DAT regulation by using Western blot analysis and a dopamine uptake assay, and characterized the impact of PREP on protein kinase C (PKC) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) by using PKC assay and Western blot, respectively, as these kinases regulate DAT phosphorylation. Our results confirmed our previous findings that a lack of PREP can increase phosphorylation and internalization of DAT and decrease uptake of dopamine. PREP inhibition had a variable impact on phosphorylation of ERK dependent on the metabolic state of cells, but did not have an effect on phosphorylation or function of DAT. PREP modifications did not affect PKC activity either. Additionally, a lack of PREP elevated a DAT oligomerization that is associated with intracellular trafficking of DAT. Our results suggest that PREP-mediated phosphorylation, oligomerization, and internalization of DAT is not dependent on PKC or ERK.

Misfolding and aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) protein, leading to dysfunctional proteins and toxic protein aggregates, are seen as major factors in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Direct protein-protein interactions (PPI) between α-syn and a serine endopeptidase, prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP), have been shown to increase α-syn aggregation. Small molecular PREP inhibitors, in turn, have been shown to reduce the ɑ-syn aggregation process both in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of PREP has been shown to have dual effects on ɑ-syn aggregation: first of all, blocking PREP mediated seeding and secondly, inducing the clearance of ɑ-syn aggregates via increased autophagy. Thus, PREP inhibitors should be further studied as a potential treatment for PD and other synucleinopathies. In this study, we evaluated the effect of two different PREP inhibitors, 4-phenylbutanoyl-L-prolyl-2(S)-cyanopyrrolidine (KYP-2047) and HUP-115 in a virus vector-based unilateral A53T-ɑ-syn overexpression mouse model. AAV-A53T-ɑ-syn injections used in this study caused a significant increase in oligomer-specific alpha-synuclein (ɑ-synO5) immunoreactivity and a mild dopaminergic neuron loss, together with mild motor deficits. Neither 2-week PREP inhibition with KYP-2047 or 4-week PREP inhibition with HUP-115 reduced ɑ-synO5 immunoreactivity or protected dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Concordant to this, the treatments did not restore the slight behavioral deficit AAV-A53T-ɑ-syn injections caused in the cylinder test. In previous studies, PREP inhibition with KYP-2047 decreased ɑ-synO5 immunoreactivity, attenuated dopaminergic neuron loss and restored behavioral deficits in other α-syn overexpression mouse models. It is suggested that PREP inhibitors mainly have an effect on soluble ɑ-syn oligomers, rather than insoluble fibrils. In case A53T-ɑ-syn forms insoluble fibrils too rapidly in mice, overexpression of A53T-ɑ-syn might not be a suitable option when studying the effects of PREP inhibitors. Our results suggest that further characterization of this model in mice is much needed before drawing any conclusions about the effect of these PREP inhibitors.