There are dozens of approved, investigational and experimental antiviral agents. Many of these agents cause serious side effects, which can only be revealed after drug administration. Identification of the side effects prior to drug administration is challenging. Here we describe an ex vivo approach for studying immuno- and neuro-modulatory properties of antiviral agents, which may be associated with potential side effects of these therapeutics. The current approach combines drug toxicity/efficacy tests and transcriptomics, which is followed by mRNA, cytokine and metabolite profiling. We demonstrated the utility of this approach with several examples of antiviral agents. We also showed that the approach can utilize different immune stimuli and cell types. It can also include other omics techniques, such as genomics and epigenomics, to allow identification of individual markers associated with adverse reactions to antivirals with immuno- and neuro-modulatory properties.

Viruses are one of the major causes of acute and chronic infectious diseases and thus a major contributor to the global burden of disease. Several studies have shown how viruses have evolved to hijack basic cellular pathways and evade innate immune response by modulating key host factors and signaling pathways. A collective view of these multiple studies could advance our understanding of virus-host interactions and provide new therapeutic perspectives for the treatment of viral diseases. Here, we performed an integrative meta-analysis to elucidate the 17 different host-virus interactomes. Network and bioinformatics analyses showed how viruses with small genomes efficiently achieve the maximal effect by targeting multifunctional and highly connected host proteins with a high occurrence of disordered regions. We also identified the core cellular process subnetworks that are targeted by all the viruses. Integration with functional RNA interference (RNAi) datasets showed that a large proportion of the targets are required for viral replication. Furthermore, we performed an interactome-informed drug re-purposing screen and identified novel activities for broad-spectrum antiviral agents against hepatitis C virus and human metapneumovirus. Altogether, these orthogonal datasets could serve as a platform for hypothesis generation and follow-up studies to broaden our understanding of the viral evasion landscape.

SARS-CoV-2 is a new type of coronavirus that has caused worldwide pandemic. The disease induced by SARS-CoV-2 is called COVID-19. A majority of people with COVID-19 have relatively mild respiratory symptoms. However, a small percentage of COVID-19 patients develop a severe disease where multiple organs are affected. These severe forms of SARS-CoV-2 infections are associated with excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, so called "cytokine storm". Inflammasomes, which are protein complexes of the innate immune system orchestrate development of local and systemic inflammation during virus infection. Recent data suggest involvement of inflammasomes in severe COVID-19. Activation of inflammasome exerts two major effects: it activates caspase-1-mediated processing and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1 beta and IL-18, and induces inflammatory cell death, pyroptosis, via protein called gasdermin D. Here, we provide comprehensive review of current understanding of the activation and possible functions of different inflammasome structures during SARS-CoV-2 infection and compare that to response caused by influenza A virus. We also discuss how novel SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines activate innate immune response, which is a prerequisite for the activation of protective adaptive immune response.

The early life gut microbiota plays a major role in establishing neonatal immunity and child’s long-term health. However, relatively little is still known about the role of individual bacteria as most studies so far have focused on characterizing the diversity and the individual and temporal variations of the infant gut microbiome. The genus Bacteroides is of particular interest since its abundance is remarkably decreased in infants born via C-section, and relatively little is known about the genomic and phenotypic characteristics of early Bacteroides colonizers despite their anticipated role in the increased morbidity following C-section birth. This thesis aims to contribute to the isolation and characterization of Bacteroides strains from infant and mother stool samples from the Health and Early Life Microbiota (HELMi) cohort study using culture-based and metagenomic approaches. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from stool samples of 9-week-old infants and identified by Sanger sequencing. In total, seven isolates identified as unique species of Bacteroides, isolated from infant samples or previously from mother samples in late pregnancy, were then characterized for their potential to activate innate immunity in vitro by using HEK-Blue™ hTLR2-hTLR6 reporter cells either as live cells or filtered culture media. Whole genome shotgun sequenced stool metagenomes obtained from 88 infants during the first year of life were leveraged as well. A computational pipeline able to scale to the large size of the dataset was developed to obtain metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) from the metagenomes. MAGs obtained from Bacteroides species were further taxonomically and functionally annotated. Among the seven Bacteroides spp. isolated from HELMi mother and infant samples, the majority were able to activate the TLR2/6 receptor in vitro. The isolates varied in their potential to activate the receptor via their cell surface molecules and substances they excreted to the culture media. In addition, over 2500 MAGs could be retrieved from the infant metagenomes, of which 18 belonged to Bacteroides spp. Based on predicted open reading frames, majority of the identified proteins of these MAGs were involved in housekeeping functions. Most of predicted proteins involved in cellular metabolism were, however, related to carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and glycan metabolism, stressing the role of Bacteroides spp. in the gut as important and versatile carbohydrate consumers. The results indicate that the Bacteroides spp. colonizing infant gut have an immunologically and metabolically active role. Further work is needed to characterize the molecules responsible for the TLR2/6 activation as well as the nature of the downstream immune responses elicited by the isolated Bacteroides spp.

Abstract The emergence and evolution of the complement system and mast cells (MCs) can be traced back to sea urchins and the ascidian Styela plicata, respectively. Acting as a cascade of enzymatic reactions, complement is activated through the classical (CP), the alternative (AP), and the lectin pathway (LP) based on the recognized molecules. The system's main biological functions include lysis, opsonization, and recruitment of phagocytes. MCs, beyond their classic role as master cells of allergic reactions, play a role in other settings, as well. Thus, MCs are considered as extrahepatic producers of complement proteins. They express various complement receptors, including those for C3a and C5a. C3a and C5a not only activate the C3aR and C5aR expressing MCs but also act as chemoattractants for MCs derived from different anatomic sites, such as from the bone marrow, human umbilical cord blood, or skin in vitro. Cross talk between MCs and complement is facilitated by the production of complement proteins by MCs and their activation by the MC tryptase. The coordinated activity between MCs and the complement system plays a key role, for example, in a number of allergic, cutaneous, and vascular diseases. At a molecular level, MCs and complement system interactions are based on the production of several complement zymogens by MCs and their activation by MC-released proteases. Additionally, at a cellular level, MCs act as potent effector cells of complement activation by expressing receptors for C3a and C5a through which their chemoattraction and activation are mediated by anaphylatoxins in a paracrine and autocrine fashion.

Osteoarthritis (OA) has long been viewed as a degenerative disease of cartilage, but accumulating evidence indicates that inflammation has a critical role in its pathogenesis. In particular, chondrocyte-mediated inflammatory responses triggered by the activation of innate immune receptors by alarmins (also known as danger signals) are thought to be involved. Thus, toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their signaling pathways are of particular interest. Recent reports suggest that among the TLR-induced innate immune responses, apoptosis is one of the critical events. Apoptosis is of particular importance, given that chondrocyte death is a dominant feature in OA. This review focuses on the role of TLR signaling in chondrocytes and the role of TLR activation in chondrocyte apoptosis. The functional relevance of TLR and TLR-triggered apoptosis in OA are discussed as well as their relevance as candidates for novel disease-modifying OA drugs (DMOADs).

Streptococci are a broad group of Gram-positive bacteria. This genus includes various human pathogens causing significant morbidity and mortality. Two of the most important human pathogens areStreptococcus pneumoniae(pneumococcus) andStreptococcus pyogenes(group A streptococcus or GAS). Streptococcal pathogens have evolved to express virulence factors that enable them to evade complement-mediated attack. These include factor H-binding M (S. pyogenes) and pneumococcal surface protein C (PspC) (S. pneumoniae) proteins. In addition,S. pyogenesandS. pneumoniaeexpress cytolysins (streptolysin and pneumolysin), which are able to destroy host cells. Sometimes, the interplay between streptococci, the complement, and antistreptococcal immunity may lead to an excessive inflammatory response or autoimmune disease. Understanding the fundamental role of the complement system in microbial clearance and the bacterial escape mechanisms is of paramount importance for understanding microbial virulence, in general, and, the conversion of commensals to pathogens, more specifically. Such insights may help to identify novel antibiotic and vaccine targets in bacterial pathogens to counter their growing resistance to commonly used antibiotics.