Riskiprofiilissa arvioitiin turkistarhauksen aiheuttamaa tautiriskiä ihmisille Suomessa. Turkistarhaus luo otolliset olot taudinaiheuttajien lisääntymiselle, leviämiselle ja useiden taudinaiheuttajien muuntumiselle. Erityisesti minkki on tehokas useiden eri virusten säilymö. Turkiseläimistä otetaan hyvin vähän näytteitä tautitutkimuksiin, joten niiden perusteella ei voida päätellä tautien esiintymisestä suomalaisilla turkistarhoilla. Ihmisten ja turkiseläinten välillä leviäviä taudinaiheuttajia ja muita mikrobeita ovat erityisesti hengitystievirukset, ulosteperäiset taudinaiheuttajat ja antibiooteille resistentit bakteerit. Ne aiheuttavat terveysriskin turkistarhojen työntekijöille ja heidän lähipiirilleen. Erityisesti influenssavirukset voivat turkistarhaoloissa muuntua vakavaksi eri nisäkkäisiin helposti leviäväksi taudiksi. Turkiseläinten taudinaiheuttajien tärkeimpiä lähteitä ovat tarhalla käyvät ihmiset, rehu ja muut eläimet. Turkistarhoilla tautisuojaustoimenpiteet ovat usein puutteellisia. Niiden kohentaminen ja rehuketjun asiallinen riskinhallinta parantaisivat taudeilta suojautumista.

Mycoplasma bovis is an important pathogen of cattle. It causes a wide variety of clinical diseases, including mastitis, respiratory disease, arthritis, and otitis media. M. bovis has evolved several mechanisms to avoid the host’s immune system, no effective commercial vaccines are available, and antibiotic resistance is increasingly seen in contemporary strains. The most common route of transmission between herds is the purchase of a latent carrier animal. M. bovis can spread silently within a herd, and once established in a dairy herd it is difficult to eradicate. Hence, it is of utmost importance to try to control and prevent the spread of M. bovis. Sensitive and cost-effective diagnostic methods to detect latent carrier animals, as well as methods that could be used in herd certification are needed. The possible transmission of M. bovis through assisted reproduction needs to be investigated more closely. This thesis examines the course of M. bovis infection in Finnish dairy farms, presents a new route of entry of M. bovis into naive dairy herds, and describes methods that could be utilized in the control of M. bovis infections. In study I, the course of M. bovis infection was followed over two years on 19 recently infected dairy farms. The aim was to identify diagnostic methods that could be used to assess whether the herd had reached a low-risk infection status. In 17 herds, a few cases of clinical mastitis were detected, and these mostly occurred within two months after the index case. On two farms, M. bovis only caused respiratory disease in young stock, and no clinical mastitis was detected. The prevalence of M. bovis in nasal (NS) and deep nasopharyngeal (NP) swabs taken from young calves varied from zero to 75% per herd among the studied calves. An in-house MilA ELISA detected more positive serum samples than the commercial BioX ELISA. The proportion of MilA-positive young stock followed the patterns seen in NS and NP of calves, but no such association was seen in BioX ELISA results. In cows, despite the infection appearing to have resolved in some herds, the proportion of MilA antibody-positive cows remained high for at least one and half year after the detection of the index case. According to the results, M. bovis can be present in calves alone without causing mastitis in cows. Several methods need to be applied to verify the herd infection status. These include regular monitoring for M. bovis in clinical mastitis and calf pneumonia cases, combined with regular PCR testing of nasal swabs from calves and sera for the detection of antibodies against M. bovis using the MilA ELISA. The transmission of M. bovis via semen has been speculated. When epidemiological data to assess the infection source were collected in study I, suspicion arose that contaminated commercial artificial insemination (AI) semen could have been the source in two closed dairy herds. National health care and farm registers were used to collect farm data and farmers were interviewed. Whole genome sequencing was used to compare the genomes of isolated strains. Epidemiological analysis did not reveal any other source than contaminated semen from one bull used for artificial insemination in the cows that were the first ones to develop clinical mastitis in both herds. Core genome multilocus sequence type analysis supported this. The bull had secreted M. bovis intermittently and for only a short time into semen during an approximately seven-week period. On both farms, the incubation period between insemination and clinical mastitis was 32 days. To our knowledge, this is the first study to describe the transmission of M. bovis via AI. Even though this appears to be rare, commercial AI semen needs to be taken into account as a possible transmission route. Following the detection of M. bovis in Finland, a voluntary control program was established. One part of the program is NS taken from young calves and tested for M. bovis to indicate the infection status of the herd. In study III, the suitability of this method was assessed and compared with NP sampling. Furthermore, NS and NP sampling of pneumonic calves to detect M. bovis was compared with bronchoalveolar lavage sampling. Altogether, 1037 NS were taken from calves in 30 recently infected herds, and NP samples were also taken from 284 calves. The overall prevalence in NS was 29.6% and the highest prevalence of 43% was seen in 31- to 60-day-old calves. Thereafter, the shedding rate decreased. At the calf level, NP sampling detected M. bovis in 47% and NS in 33% of studied calves. At the herd level, NS sampling was more sensitive, as it classified 51 out 54 herd visits with a positive infection status as infected, whereas using NP sampling, the respective figure was 43 out of 54 visits (p = 0.061). The reason for the difference seen at the calf and herd levels is the sampling protocol. We took only five NP samples, but number of NS swabs varied from six to 28, depending on the herd size. We conclude that NS swabs taken from calves under six months of age and analyzed with real-time PCR represent a cost-efficient method to be used in a control program. If calves suffering from acute respiratory disease need to be examined, NP samples are a practical and sensitive method to detect M. bovis. The effect of two concentrations of a gentamycin-tylosin-linco/spectinomycin (GTLS) antibiotic combination and a fluoroquinole antibiotic, ofloxacin, on the viability of M. bovis in commercial-scale AI semen production using modern semen extender with plant-derived protein was investigated. A reference strain and a wild-type strains isolated from semen in study II were used in spiking. Three different protocols to extract M. bovis DNA from semen were also compared. At a high spiking concentration of 106 CFU/mL, none of the studied antibiotics had a bactericidal effect. At a low spiking concentration of 103 CFU/mL, the growth of the wild-type strain was inhibited by all other antibiotic protocols except for the low GTLS concentration, which is stated in EU regulation and the OIE Terrestrial Code. Instead, the high GTLS protocol was the only one that inhibited the growth of the reference strain. At a low M. bovis contamination level, GTLS used at a high concentration, according to the Certified Semen Services protocol, is more efficient than GTLS used according to the OIE Terrestrial Code. The Instagene™ matrix was the most efficient method to extract M. bovis DNA from semen.

Kystikerkoosi naudoissa – lihantarkastuksen yksinkertaistaminen -hankkeen taustalla on komission täytäntöönpanoasetus (EU) 2019/627, joka antaa mahdollisuuden luopua nautojen lihantarkastuksessa tehtävistä puremalihasten (poskilihasten) viilloista. Mahdollisuus tällä tavalla keventää lihantarkastusta nosti esiin tarpeen tarkastella Suomen perusteiden riittävyyttä. Poskilihasviillot tehdään ihmisten tenioositautia aiheuttavan naudan kystikerkoosin eli Taenia saginata -heisimadon loisrakkuloiden havaitsemiseksi. Hankkeen tavoitteena oli 1) kartoittaa ihmisten ja nautojen taudille altistavia tekijöitä, 2) arvioida ihmisten altistumista T. saginata -heisimadolle Suomessa ja 3) selvittää T. saginata -heisimadon esiintyvyyttä suomalaisissa teurasnaudoissa. Suomalaisista teurastamoista otettiin vuosina 2020 ja 2021 hanketta varten tarkemmin analysoitavaksi 793 naudan poski- ja sydänlihasnäytettä. Lisäksi tutkittiin kolme tavanomaisesta lihantarkastuksesta lähetettyä epäilynäytettä. Yksikään näyte ei sisältänyt loisrakkuloita. Saman ajanjakson aikana teurastamoiden hankkeeseen kuulumattomassakaan lihantarkastuksessa ei havaittu loisrakkuloita. Kystikerkoosin esiintyvyydeksi suomalaisissa teurasnaudoissa arvioitiin 0,004 % (mediaani, 95 % todennäköisyysväli 0,0001–0,02 %). Riskinarvioinnin tulosten perusteella kystikerkoosi on erittäin harvinainen tauti suomalaisissa naudoissa, ja loisrakkuloiden aiheuttama riski kuluttajalle on hyvin pieni. Poskilihasviilloista luopuminen ei käytännössä lisäisi suomalaisten altistumista T. saginata -heisimadolle.

Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a highly contagious viral disease of fish causing economic losses in farmed salmonid aquaculture worldwide. This research aimed to elucidate the epidemiological, pathological and genetic factors underlying IPNV infection occurring in farmed fish in Finland. The work was carried out by describing the epidemiology of an IPNV outbreak in Finnish inland waters in 2012–2014 and by characterizing the Finnish IPNV isolates occurring in inland waters using genetic, histopathological and immunological approaches. Furthermore, molecular characterization of Finnish IPNV isolates collected in 2000–2015 was performed. Finally, an infection trial was conducted to gather further information on the pathogenicity of three IPN genogroups in Finnish rainbow trout. IPNV genogroups 2, 5 and 6 have been found to occur in Finland. Of these, genogroup 2 is the most widespread. All three genogroups occur in the sea area. The IPNV epidemic starting in 2012 in inland waters was caused by genogroup 2. Retrospectively, a genetically similar viral strain to that of the inland strains was already found to occur in 2011 in the sea area, making it likely that the epidemic originated from the sea area. Molecular characterization of the isolated IPN viruses revealed little genetic variation within the Finnish genogroup 2 and 5 isolates. Finnish genogroup 2 isolates appeared to form their own subgroup, whereas genogroup 5 isolates formed a more consistent cluster with previously published isolates. Genogroup 6 consisted of two subgroups. The divergence of genogroup 6 IPNV within the aquabirnaviruses was further demonstrated by the sequence data from our studies. Prior to our studies, only partial VP1 genogroup 6 IPNV sequences were available at the NCBI GenBank. In our study, two IPNV genogroup 6 isolates were sequenced for the complete coding regions of viral genome segments A and B (polyprotein sequences). The Finnish IPNV isolates studied demonstrated virulence-associated amino acid patterns in the viral capsid protein (VP2) gene region previously associated with avirulence in genogroup 5, except for IPNV genogroup 6, which exhibits an amino acid pattern that has not been connected in the literature with either virulence or avirulence. In the infection trial, mortalities noted in all the treatment groups were only moderate at most. The highest mortalities were caused by the Finnish IPNV genogroup 5 (10.3% to 38.2%), whereas IPNV genogroup 2 caused variable mortalities (3.5% to 28.3%) and the Norwegian IPNV genogroup 5 virus used as a positive control caused only negligible mortalities. The IPNV genogroup 6 virus was not re-isolated in the infection trial, although some elevated mortalities were seen in one tank (8%), leaving the virulence of this genogroup still uncertain. Finnish inland waters harbour the most IPNV-susceptible life stages of fish, and here, an infection caused by a virulent strain of IPNV would thus potentially have the greatest negative economic impact on Finnish rainbow trout farming. Continuation of the legislative disease control of IPN genogroup 5 in Finnish inland waters is thus supported by this study. In general, IPN is considered a coldwater disease, with a peak in clinical disease and increased mortality at 10 °C. However, in Finland, the occurrence of virus at exceptionally high temperatures, with clinical signs of disease and histopathological changes typical of IPN, was noted at water temperatures as high as 21°C. The occurrence of IPNV in higher water temperatures has economic consequences, as it lengthens the susceptible time period for the disease. Moreover, rising water temperatures and longer warm water periods due to global warming may increase the disease-causing importance of this genogroup in the future.

Perunan käsittelyprosesseissa päätuotteen ohessa syntyvät jakeet eli sivuvirrat muodostavat merkittävän osan elintarvikkeena ja teollisuuden raaka-aineena käytettävän perunan kokonaismäärästä. Sivuvirtojen hyödyntäminen, esimerkiksi lannoitteena, on tärkeää ympäristön, ravinteiden kierron ja tuottavuuden kannalta. Lannoitekäyttöön saattaa kuitenkin sisältyä riski kasvintuhoojien leviämisestä lannoitteiden mukana. Kasvinterveyslainsäädäntö ja EU:n teollisuusjärjestöjen sisämaakaupan vaatimukset rajoittavat kasvintuhoojien esiintymistä raaka-aineessa, ja tuhoojien leviämistä lannoitevalmisteiden mukana pyritään ehkäisemään lainsäädännön asettamien käsittelyvaatimusten avulla. Lannoitelainsäädännön vaatimusten mukaiset käsittelyt tehoavat suurimpaan osaan mutteivät kaikkiin perunan, kasvinosien ja maan välityksellä leviäviin kasvintuhoojiin. Lisäksi tutkimattomia kasvintuhoojia on suuri joukko. Sivuvirtojen lannoitekäytön kasvinterveysriskien arviointia vaikeuttavat tietopuutteet kasvintuhoojien esiintymisestä raaka-aineessa, haitallisesta määrästä ja joidenkin kasvintuhoojien osalta eliminointiin tarvittavasta käsittelystä. Jatkossa sivuvirtojen lannoitekäytön hyötyhaittasuhdetta yhteiskunnalle, ympäristölle ja viljelijöille pitäisi selvittää tarkemmin.

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VHS) was isolated for the first time in Finland in 2000 from a Finnish brackish water fish farm farming rainbow trout in net pens in the Province of Åland, Baltic Sea. The efforts to eradicate the disease from the Åland islands were not successful. Epidemical factors, needed for VHS management in viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) positive brackish water fish farms, were studied in a 3-year project, the results of which are presented in this thesis. The study compared the ability of four different surveillance procedures and three diagnostic tests to reveal whether a fish population was infected with VHSV. The programme that was conducted as syndromic surveillance, where the farmers sent in samples for diagnostics if any signs of possible fish disease were noticed, clearly outperformed the other three programmes, which were based on active surveillance. A real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction method proved to be at least as sensitive in detecting acute VHSV infections as virus isolation in cell culture, which is considered the gold-standard method for diagnosing VHSV. An ELISA method was used to test fish serums for antibodies against VHSV and was found to be a promising tool in VHSV eradication, particularly for screening populations during the follow-up period, before declaring an area free of infection. During the epidemics it was a common suspicion wild fish being the most likely source of the reinfections of VHSV in infected fish farms in the restriction area. Wild fish of 17 different species from VHS-positive fish farms were screened for VHSV during 2005-2008. In addition, uninfected wild perch, roach and farmed whitefish were introduced to a fish farm with rainbow trout experiencing a clinical outbreak of VHS. The wild fish did not test positive on any occasion, but whitefish were infected and started to replicate VHSV for a short time. The replication of the virus in whitefish was verified using a new qRT-PCR method that tests separately for positive- and negative-sense viral sequences in infected organ samples. The presence of VHSV in the environment on fish farms or processing plants farming or handling VHSV-positive fish was studied by testing samples for VHSV from wild blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) living in infected fish farms. Sea water and sediment from infected fish farms were also tested for VHSV. Wild uninfected blue mussels were also challenged with VHSV in two different challenge tests. Wastewater from a processing plant was tested before and after disinfection treatment. Blue mussels were not found to be carriers of VHSV on any occasion. Sea water tested positive for VHSV RNA more often during the wintertime when water temperature was close to 0°C and sunlight (UV light) sparse. Most wastewater samples collected before the disinfection treatment were positive for VHSV, but samples collected after disinfection were all negative regarding VHSV RNA. Contacts between the processing plants and the fish farms in the restriction area of VHS were very common during this study. Processing plants are usually the place where fish food and farming equipment are stored, including boats that are used for the daily servicing of the farming localities. According to the results of this study, this contact was considered a major risk for disease spread, especially during the cold part of the year when daylight is also short. Altogether, this thesis compiles the results of a series of studies targeting factors that could affect the infection pressure of VHSV on disease free fish populations.

Riskinarvioinnissa tutkittiin suomalaisten työikäisten ja eläkeläisten elintarvikkeista ja talousvedestä saamaa altistusta kadmiumille, lyijylle, arseenille, elohopealle, nikkelille ja alumiinille. Aikuisten altistus on vähäisempää kuin lasten (arvioitu aiemmin: Eviran tutkimuksia 2/2015), mutta turvallisen saannin raja ylittyi silti osalla väestöstä. Lyijyn ja epäorgaanisen arseenin saanti oli suuruusluokkaa, jolla terveyshaittojen vaikutusta ei voi sulkea pois, mutta niiden todennäköisyys on pieni tai enintään kohtuullinen. Joka viidennellä yli 45-vuotiaalla naisella osteoporoottisen murtuman riski on kasvanut kadmiumaltistuksen vuoksi, vaikka lannoitteiden kadmiumpitoisuuksia rajoitetaan kansallisesti altistuksen vähentämiseksi. Eniten eri raskasmetalleille altistuivat hedelmällisessä iässä olevat, ts. 25–45-vuotiaat, naiset. Elohopea-altistus tällä ryhmällä oli kuitenkin vähäistä. Riskinarvioinnissa tutkittiin altistuksen suuruuden ja lähteiden lisäksi ruoankäytön havaittujen muutosten vaikutusta kuluttajien altistukseen. Finravinto-tutkimusten 2007 ja 2012 perusteella arvioidun altistuksen lisäksi tehtiin karkea arvio EAT-Lancet Commissionin suositteleman ruokavalion mahdollisesta vaikutuksesta kuluttajien altistukseen.

One Health takes a multidisciplinary approach to health risks and risk mitigation for humans, animals, plants and the environment, with the understanding that human health welfare is dependent on ecosystem health. The U.S. and Canada started the One Health project under the Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) of the Arctic Council in 2015, Finland joined the project as a colead in 2017. This report is a summary of the Finnish activities and achievements in the One Arctic - One Health project during the Finnish Chairmanship of the Arctic Council. The main actions included the One Arctic - One Health conference in Oulu, establishment of the TremArctic network, and two published Systematic Review papers and two manuscripts. There were also joint sessions and presentations in scientific conferences, seminars and workshops, and joint meetings and collaboration with the other Arctic Council Working Groups, the University of the Arctic, other organisations, and scientific projects. The report concludes with some updated proposals for further work, based on previous works and reflecting progress over the past two years. The Finnish One Arctic - One Health team consisted of scientists from the University of Oulu, National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), University of Helsinki and the Finnish Food Authority. This work was supported by the grant of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland.

Risk profile is based on survey data collected in an EU funded PlantLibra project concerning Finland and information from scientific litterature on composition of plant food supplements (PFSs), toxicity of the compounds they contain and possible pharmacokinetic interactions of these compounds or substances in PFS with medication. There were no significant direct toxicological risks related to substances in PFS. However, many substances in PFSs (especially ginger and Equisetum arvense) were related to potential interactions with medications, especially with medications which are metabolised through CYP3A4. Since medications which are metabolised through CYP3A4 are used frequently among PFS user, the risk of intercations may be significant – especially warfarin with narrow therapeutic window. However, there is no strong evidence o finteractions between these PFSs and medications, since there from litterature there is mainly in vitro studies available. It should also be noted that manny used PFSs contained several plant subtances and that PFSs were used with several medications simultaneously.